metacosmologist
01-30-2007, 07:47 PM
Please allow me to present some data regarding the pseudoscientific concept of race. I ask that the moderators give me the tiny bit of extra storage that this post will necessitate and possibly consider the placement of this text as a sticky in order to allow for immediate dismissal of the preposterous pseudoscience various members have mistaken for the real thing.
The fact that the text I will post can be found in undergraduate biology tells us much about the relative truth of the claims made by the mysterious pseudo-intellectuals we refer to as Racialists.
LINK (http://gemini.oscs.montana.edu/~mlavin/b403/humans1.htm)
Chapter 19. Human Evolution. 2) No modern human race or any other grouping based on phenotype or culture is monophyletic (including African races), which is in contrast to most species see diagram 01: http://gemini.oscs.montana.edu/~mlavin/b403/403mtDNA.jpg).
Modern humans are exceptional in having a widespread distribution with no evidence of monophyletic allopatric races or populations. We achieved our world-wide distribution much more quickly than mutation and drift could have given rise to monophyletic modern human races. Phylogenetic evidence derived from all of the human genome (mtDNA, Y, and autosomal) reveals that the oldest genetic lineages, but not populations, occur exclusively in Africa. This early African genetic split forms the basis of the molecular clock analysis described previously to determine the initial age of the founder event out of Africa. In contrasts to modern humans, the closest ape relatives show the usual patterns of monophyletic allopatric populations.
Chimpanzees - This genus contains two species, the common chimp, Pan troglodytes, with four allopatric and monophyletic subspecies, and the pygmy chimp or bonobo, Pan paniscus. Chimps are all similar to each other in that they are omnivorous and also in that the females actively mate with more than one male during estrus. Bonobos are most like humans in that sex is decoupled from reproduction and not limited to estrus. Bonobos have long hair on the top of the head with a distinct part in the middle, pink lips, and a tendency toward bipedal locomotion. Bonobos are restricted to a relatively small area of dense tropical rain forests south of the Zaire River in Democratic Republic of Congo. Common chimp populations all occur to the north of the Zaire River. Pan troglodytes verus is the pale-faced chimp from west central Africa, which is the largest bodied chimp. Notably, this subspecies eats meat commonly as part of its diet and preys in a large part on the red colobus monkey. Also, it is in this area only that chimps have been observed to use stones to crack open nuts. This subspecies is the most genetically different of the chimp subspecies (P. A. Morin et al., 1994, Science 265: 1193-1201). Pan troglodytes troglodytes is the black-faced chimp and Pan troglodytes vellerosus is the Nigerian chimp, both from central Africa approximately in the same region as the western lowland gorilla. These subspecies are distinguished only by genetic data. Both rarely prey on the red colobus monkey even though it is a plentiful prey species. It is in these populations and the next where chimps have been observed to use straws to fish out termites from mounds. Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii is the long-haired chimp from east central Africa, and is the small bodied chimp that was studied by Jane Goodall. Though including meat as part of its diet, this subspecies is actively chased by the red colobus monkey during territorial battles.
Gorillas - The gorilla includes one species, Gorilla gorilla. Gorillas are all similar in that they are herbivorous and the dominant males are territorial and sequester harems. However, at least three allopatric monophyletic populations are given scientific names (C. P. Groves, 1970, Journal of Zoology, London 161: 287-300). Gorilla gorilla gorilla is the western lowland gorilla from west central Africa (including the distinct ‘Cross Rivers’ population). These gorillas are characterized by gray-brown short hair, a saddle not distinctly set off from rest of body hair in mature males, and a small body size (the average male weighs less then 310 pounds). The western lowland gorilla is the most genetically distinct from the others. Gorilla gorilla graueri is the eastern lowland gorilla from central Africa. These gorillas are characterized by short black hair, a saddle distinctly contrasting with black hair in mature males, and a large stocky body (average male weighs around 360 pounds). The range of these two lowland gorillas is delimited by the Oubangui River. Gorilla gorilla beringei is the mountain gorilla mainly in Uganda and Rwanda at altitudes mostly between 2,000 and 4,000 meters (the two lowland subspecies do not occur above 2,000 meters). Mountain gorillas are characterized by long black hair, a saddle distinctly contrasting with black hair in mature males, and a large stocky body (average male weighs over 340 pounds). The mountain gorilla occupies montane forests and eats strictly leaves (the diet of the lowland gorillas includes fruit), and thus has a larger sagittal crest and thicker jaw bones and teeth to accommodate this diet.
Orangutans - the orangutan comprises one species, Pongo pygmaeus, with two geographically distinct populations. Orangutans are all ecologically similar in being herbivorous, and often arboreal, and with solitary and territorial males (the last potentially a recent development because of expanding human populations). Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus is from Borneo and Pongo pygmaeus abelii is from Sumatra. The Bornean male orangutans have broader cheek pads and somewhat darker orange hair compared to the Sumatran male Orangutans. The genetic differences between the two subspecies of orangutan are great and molecular clock estimates suggest at least a three million year old divergence time between the Bornean and Sumatran orangutan (e.g., D. N. Janczewski et al., 1990, Journal of Heredity 81: 375-387). The island of Borneo by itself contains at least 3 allopatric populations of Orangutans that are phenotypically distinct.
Conclusion. The exceptional homogeneous population genetic structure of modern humans that contrasts to most species is a consequence of our rapidly expanding and invasive nature. Limited genetic variation associated with non-monophyly of allopatric populations is typical of the classic invasive weedy species (e.g., knapweed) that have such high levels of gene flow among populations that gene frequencies tend to become homogenized.
LINK (http://gemini.oscs.montana.edu/~mlavin/b403/humans2.htm)
Human Evolution. Evolutionary biology has produced a great amount of evidence in the form of genetics, fossils, and derived phenotypic homology, that bears on human history and origins. This opens up the possibility that a new folk history, perhaps the basis for a new mythology, can be derived from such evidence, a suggestion put forth by Joseph Campbell, Edward O. Wilson, and Bill McKibben, for example. The important evolutionary findings on human history that may play a part in the development of this new mythology include:
1) Modern humans (Homo sapiens) are monophyletic and of recent origin.
2) No modern human race or any other grouping based on phenotype or culture is monophyletic, which is in contrast to most species; however the oldest genetic lineages (not populations) occur exclusively in Africa, strongly suggesting that is the place of origin for modern humans.
3) Modern humans are the sole survivor of a diverse bipedal hominid community that existed from about 2.5 Ma to about 20 Ka years ago.
4) The bipedal human lineage is intimately related to the three genera of great apes.
5) Modern humans possess many attributes derived from their primate ancestry.
6) The mental attributes of modern humans that were inherited from their primate ancestry are worth knowing.
1) Modern humans (Homo sapiens) are monophyletic and of recent origin. Modern human genetic divergence is measured more by Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and Fst values than by phylogenetic methods (the maximum Fst of modern humans is about 0.08; see page 749 for additional genetic evidence underscoring the relatively limited genetic variation in modern humans). This strongly suggests we trace back to a MRCA very recently. We therefore achieved our world-wide distribution and constituent phenotypic variation also very recently. Regardless, we can use some phylogenetic evidence for understanding human evolution. One phylogenetic finding from all of the human genome (mtDNA, Y, and autosomal) is that the oldest genetic lineages (not populations) occur exclusively in Africa. We can use such information in a molecular clock analysis to determine the age of the initial founder event out of Africa. Fossil evidence reveals that bipedal and large-brained humans left Africa 2,000,000 years ago. Genetic evidence suggests we stem from an African migration event much more recently.
The molecular clock assumes that nucleotide substitutions accumulate between two isolated populations mainly as a function of time.
a. Calculate the average number of nucleotide substitutions that distinguish two populations, at least one of which has a good fossil record. For example, a sample of Asian mainlanders and New Guineans differ by 0.22%, or 2.2 substitutions per 1,000 bases of mtDNA non-coding sequences, on average.
b. Using the fossil record, identify the minimum age of one of the lineages. In this case, New Guinea was first inhabited by humans about 40,000 years ago. Because Asian mainlanders and New Guineans trace back to a most recent common ancestor (New Guinean populations were founded by Asian migrants), the 0.22% divergence between New Guineans and Asians was accumulated along two lineages that stem from a common ancestor at least 40,000 years ago. Thus, 0.11% is the value that accumulated in each of the New Guinean and Asian lineages.
c. The value of 0.11% divergence accumulated in 40,000 years is equivalent to about 2.75% per million years (i.e., ‘0.11% / 40,000 years’ equals ‘x% / 1,000,000 years’), which is a value commonly obtained for mtDNA non-coding sequence in other vertebrates.
e. The 0.11% per 40,000 year substitution rate can be used to date sister lineages in the same phylogeny but that don't have a fossil record. In the case of humans, there is a single fundamental split in the mtDNA lineage, one leading exclusively to African populations, and the other to all human races (including some African ones). The divergence value between these two groups is 1.1% (the average difference between African and non-African lineages). In other words, 0.55% accumulated in the human lineage that remained in Africa, and 0.55% accumulated in the human lineage that left Africa. If 0.11% is equivalent to 40,000 years, then 0.55% is equivalent to 200,000 years (i.e., ‘0.55% / 0.11%’ = 5, which is multiplied by 40,000 years). That is, the most recent common ancestor of modern humans traces back in time to around 200,000 years according to non-coding mtDNA sequence data.
Fossil evidence corroborates the genetic evidence for a recent origin of modern humans. Hominid fossils showing a protruding chin, and associated with ornamental tools and weapons, burial sites, artistic portrayal of the environment, or evidence of migration across expanses of ocean show up in the fossil record only within the last 100,000 years. The oldest of such fossils are found in eastern Africa (especially hominid fossils with a protruding chin).
The fact that the text I will post can be found in undergraduate biology tells us much about the relative truth of the claims made by the mysterious pseudo-intellectuals we refer to as Racialists.
LINK (http://gemini.oscs.montana.edu/~mlavin/b403/humans1.htm)
Chapter 19. Human Evolution. 2) No modern human race or any other grouping based on phenotype or culture is monophyletic (including African races), which is in contrast to most species see diagram 01: http://gemini.oscs.montana.edu/~mlavin/b403/403mtDNA.jpg).
Modern humans are exceptional in having a widespread distribution with no evidence of monophyletic allopatric races or populations. We achieved our world-wide distribution much more quickly than mutation and drift could have given rise to monophyletic modern human races. Phylogenetic evidence derived from all of the human genome (mtDNA, Y, and autosomal) reveals that the oldest genetic lineages, but not populations, occur exclusively in Africa. This early African genetic split forms the basis of the molecular clock analysis described previously to determine the initial age of the founder event out of Africa. In contrasts to modern humans, the closest ape relatives show the usual patterns of monophyletic allopatric populations.
Chimpanzees - This genus contains two species, the common chimp, Pan troglodytes, with four allopatric and monophyletic subspecies, and the pygmy chimp or bonobo, Pan paniscus. Chimps are all similar to each other in that they are omnivorous and also in that the females actively mate with more than one male during estrus. Bonobos are most like humans in that sex is decoupled from reproduction and not limited to estrus. Bonobos have long hair on the top of the head with a distinct part in the middle, pink lips, and a tendency toward bipedal locomotion. Bonobos are restricted to a relatively small area of dense tropical rain forests south of the Zaire River in Democratic Republic of Congo. Common chimp populations all occur to the north of the Zaire River. Pan troglodytes verus is the pale-faced chimp from west central Africa, which is the largest bodied chimp. Notably, this subspecies eats meat commonly as part of its diet and preys in a large part on the red colobus monkey. Also, it is in this area only that chimps have been observed to use stones to crack open nuts. This subspecies is the most genetically different of the chimp subspecies (P. A. Morin et al., 1994, Science 265: 1193-1201). Pan troglodytes troglodytes is the black-faced chimp and Pan troglodytes vellerosus is the Nigerian chimp, both from central Africa approximately in the same region as the western lowland gorilla. These subspecies are distinguished only by genetic data. Both rarely prey on the red colobus monkey even though it is a plentiful prey species. It is in these populations and the next where chimps have been observed to use straws to fish out termites from mounds. Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii is the long-haired chimp from east central Africa, and is the small bodied chimp that was studied by Jane Goodall. Though including meat as part of its diet, this subspecies is actively chased by the red colobus monkey during territorial battles.
Gorillas - The gorilla includes one species, Gorilla gorilla. Gorillas are all similar in that they are herbivorous and the dominant males are territorial and sequester harems. However, at least three allopatric monophyletic populations are given scientific names (C. P. Groves, 1970, Journal of Zoology, London 161: 287-300). Gorilla gorilla gorilla is the western lowland gorilla from west central Africa (including the distinct ‘Cross Rivers’ population). These gorillas are characterized by gray-brown short hair, a saddle not distinctly set off from rest of body hair in mature males, and a small body size (the average male weighs less then 310 pounds). The western lowland gorilla is the most genetically distinct from the others. Gorilla gorilla graueri is the eastern lowland gorilla from central Africa. These gorillas are characterized by short black hair, a saddle distinctly contrasting with black hair in mature males, and a large stocky body (average male weighs around 360 pounds). The range of these two lowland gorillas is delimited by the Oubangui River. Gorilla gorilla beringei is the mountain gorilla mainly in Uganda and Rwanda at altitudes mostly between 2,000 and 4,000 meters (the two lowland subspecies do not occur above 2,000 meters). Mountain gorillas are characterized by long black hair, a saddle distinctly contrasting with black hair in mature males, and a large stocky body (average male weighs over 340 pounds). The mountain gorilla occupies montane forests and eats strictly leaves (the diet of the lowland gorillas includes fruit), and thus has a larger sagittal crest and thicker jaw bones and teeth to accommodate this diet.
Orangutans - the orangutan comprises one species, Pongo pygmaeus, with two geographically distinct populations. Orangutans are all ecologically similar in being herbivorous, and often arboreal, and with solitary and territorial males (the last potentially a recent development because of expanding human populations). Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus is from Borneo and Pongo pygmaeus abelii is from Sumatra. The Bornean male orangutans have broader cheek pads and somewhat darker orange hair compared to the Sumatran male Orangutans. The genetic differences between the two subspecies of orangutan are great and molecular clock estimates suggest at least a three million year old divergence time between the Bornean and Sumatran orangutan (e.g., D. N. Janczewski et al., 1990, Journal of Heredity 81: 375-387). The island of Borneo by itself contains at least 3 allopatric populations of Orangutans that are phenotypically distinct.
Conclusion. The exceptional homogeneous population genetic structure of modern humans that contrasts to most species is a consequence of our rapidly expanding and invasive nature. Limited genetic variation associated with non-monophyly of allopatric populations is typical of the classic invasive weedy species (e.g., knapweed) that have such high levels of gene flow among populations that gene frequencies tend to become homogenized.
LINK (http://gemini.oscs.montana.edu/~mlavin/b403/humans2.htm)
Human Evolution. Evolutionary biology has produced a great amount of evidence in the form of genetics, fossils, and derived phenotypic homology, that bears on human history and origins. This opens up the possibility that a new folk history, perhaps the basis for a new mythology, can be derived from such evidence, a suggestion put forth by Joseph Campbell, Edward O. Wilson, and Bill McKibben, for example. The important evolutionary findings on human history that may play a part in the development of this new mythology include:
1) Modern humans (Homo sapiens) are monophyletic and of recent origin.
2) No modern human race or any other grouping based on phenotype or culture is monophyletic, which is in contrast to most species; however the oldest genetic lineages (not populations) occur exclusively in Africa, strongly suggesting that is the place of origin for modern humans.
3) Modern humans are the sole survivor of a diverse bipedal hominid community that existed from about 2.5 Ma to about 20 Ka years ago.
4) The bipedal human lineage is intimately related to the three genera of great apes.
5) Modern humans possess many attributes derived from their primate ancestry.
6) The mental attributes of modern humans that were inherited from their primate ancestry are worth knowing.
1) Modern humans (Homo sapiens) are monophyletic and of recent origin. Modern human genetic divergence is measured more by Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and Fst values than by phylogenetic methods (the maximum Fst of modern humans is about 0.08; see page 749 for additional genetic evidence underscoring the relatively limited genetic variation in modern humans). This strongly suggests we trace back to a MRCA very recently. We therefore achieved our world-wide distribution and constituent phenotypic variation also very recently. Regardless, we can use some phylogenetic evidence for understanding human evolution. One phylogenetic finding from all of the human genome (mtDNA, Y, and autosomal) is that the oldest genetic lineages (not populations) occur exclusively in Africa. We can use such information in a molecular clock analysis to determine the age of the initial founder event out of Africa. Fossil evidence reveals that bipedal and large-brained humans left Africa 2,000,000 years ago. Genetic evidence suggests we stem from an African migration event much more recently.
The molecular clock assumes that nucleotide substitutions accumulate between two isolated populations mainly as a function of time.
a. Calculate the average number of nucleotide substitutions that distinguish two populations, at least one of which has a good fossil record. For example, a sample of Asian mainlanders and New Guineans differ by 0.22%, or 2.2 substitutions per 1,000 bases of mtDNA non-coding sequences, on average.
b. Using the fossil record, identify the minimum age of one of the lineages. In this case, New Guinea was first inhabited by humans about 40,000 years ago. Because Asian mainlanders and New Guineans trace back to a most recent common ancestor (New Guinean populations were founded by Asian migrants), the 0.22% divergence between New Guineans and Asians was accumulated along two lineages that stem from a common ancestor at least 40,000 years ago. Thus, 0.11% is the value that accumulated in each of the New Guinean and Asian lineages.
c. The value of 0.11% divergence accumulated in 40,000 years is equivalent to about 2.75% per million years (i.e., ‘0.11% / 40,000 years’ equals ‘x% / 1,000,000 years’), which is a value commonly obtained for mtDNA non-coding sequence in other vertebrates.
e. The 0.11% per 40,000 year substitution rate can be used to date sister lineages in the same phylogeny but that don't have a fossil record. In the case of humans, there is a single fundamental split in the mtDNA lineage, one leading exclusively to African populations, and the other to all human races (including some African ones). The divergence value between these two groups is 1.1% (the average difference between African and non-African lineages). In other words, 0.55% accumulated in the human lineage that remained in Africa, and 0.55% accumulated in the human lineage that left Africa. If 0.11% is equivalent to 40,000 years, then 0.55% is equivalent to 200,000 years (i.e., ‘0.55% / 0.11%’ = 5, which is multiplied by 40,000 years). That is, the most recent common ancestor of modern humans traces back in time to around 200,000 years according to non-coding mtDNA sequence data.
Fossil evidence corroborates the genetic evidence for a recent origin of modern humans. Hominid fossils showing a protruding chin, and associated with ornamental tools and weapons, burial sites, artistic portrayal of the environment, or evidence of migration across expanses of ocean show up in the fossil record only within the last 100,000 years. The oldest of such fossils are found in eastern Africa (especially hominid fossils with a protruding chin).